Autore: Erika

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TRACCIA AUDIO I MATERIALI SMART

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SMART MATERIALS

The word ‘intelligence’ comes from the Latin adverb intus, ‘within’, and the Latin verb legere, ‘to read’. It, therefore, means ‘to read within’, i.e. the ability to perceive external stimuli and act accordingly. The adjective ‘intelligent’ is also attributed to certain metals. Why?

Any material subjected to external stress (heating, electric field, radiation…) undergoes some change and therefore, in a broad sense, has a response that can be considered a kind of perception of external reality. At the end of the 1980s, materials capable of responding to different stimuli were developed, adapting their response to particular needs. The adjective ‘smart’ is reserved for this particular category of materials.

There are now numerous materials that fall into this category and, depending on the type of stimulus to which they are sensitive and the type of response they provide, they can be classified in different ways: piezoelectric, shape memory, photovoltaic, electroactive polymers, dielectric elastomers, magnetostrictive, chromogenic, ferrofluidic, photomechanical, self-repairing, magnetocaloric, thermoelectric.

Shape memory materials

Some materials have the property when deformed, to return to their original shape when brought to a certain temperature. There are two types of materials that have this property: metal alloys and polymers. Alloys are combinations of two or more elements, one of which is a metal, and in which the resulting material has different metallic properties.

The first shape of memory metal alloys was identified in the 1930s; the best-known one, made in

the 1960s, is Nitinol, from Nickel Titanium Naval Ordnance Laboratory (the name of the laboratory where it was first made). Nitinol is composed of Nickel and Titanium, and these two elements form an intermetallic compound that can exist in two crystalline forms depending on temperature. Thanks to research, it has been possible to obtain special alloys in which the shape memory is activated not by temperature, but by a magnetic field; these are ferromagnetic materials consisting of nickel, manganese, and gallium alloys. Shape memory alloys find applications in various fields. Among the most common are fasteners, damping systems, and biomedical devices.

As mentioned, there are also polymeric materials that have shape memory. Some of them even can store two or three shapes, each of which is assumed again at a certain temperature value, or by light or an electric field. Shape memory polymers are used in the same applications as alloys, but with several additional advantages, including much lower costs, ease of processing, and biodegradability.

Photovoltaic materials

The Sun radiates an enormous amount of energy, the devices capable of transforming sunlight into electrical energy are called photovoltaics. The material most commonly found in photovoltaic panels, those now seen above the roofs of many buildings, is silicon, a semiconductor (a material belonging to the category of semimetals) whose energy jump, energy gap, of the electrons on the last orbit corresponds precisely to the energy of the photons of sunlight. The explanation of this effect, called the ‘photoelectric effect’, earned Albert Einstein the Nobel Prize in 1921. It was 33 years from Einstein’s theory to practice when, in 1954, the first photovoltaic cell was realised using silicon at Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey. Silicon offers several advantages: it is widespread in the earth’s crust, is non-toxic, and is easy to process.

In addition to silicon, other semiconductors that can be used in photovoltaic cells are now available; these include cadmium telluride (CdTe), cadmium sulphide (CdS), and gallium arsenic (GaAs). These semiconductors are generally used in the form of a thin film on glass substrates or other transparent materials.

Ferrofluids

In 1963, Steve Papell, an engineer working at a NASA research centre near Cleveland, was trying to create a liquid rocket fuel that could be pumped through the application of a magnetic field. To achieve this, he had the idea of dispersing ferromagnetic nanoparticles within a liquid. The results were extremely promising: the liquid was called ferrofluid and patented.

The ferromagnetic particles of a ferrofluid have diameters in the order of 10 nanometres (0.000001 meters) and usually consist of magnetite, hematite, or some other iron compound; e.g. the toner in ordinary photocopiers works well for this purpose. The composition of a typical ferrofluid is about 5 percent dispersed magnetic solids, 10 percent surfactant, such as soy lecithin, and 85 percent liquid consisting mostly of water and a hydrocarbon. The surfactant ensures the stability of the ferrofluid, which can thus last for several years even when subjected to repeated magnetisation.

When a ferrofluid is subjected to the action of a magnetic field, its surface takes on a conformation full of sharp points and depressions; this phenomenon is called the ‘Rosenzweig effect’. The points that form on the surface are the sharper the more intense the magnetic field.

Ferrofluids, apart from the purpose for which they were created, have various applications. A significant example of their application in the medical field is with Targeting Drug Delivery, i.e. the targeted distribution of a drug when injected into the body. Magnetic nanoparticles are attached to the drug and, using magnetic fields, it is possible to guide the particles to the part of the body where the drug is to be delivered.

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TRACCIA AUDIO CORRENTE ELETTRICA

[/fusion_title][fusion_audio src=”https://www.mu-ch.it/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/QRCODE-4-CORRENTE-ELETTRICA.mp3″ loop=”off” autoplay=”off” preload=”none” hide_on_mobile=”small-visibility,medium-visibility,large-visibility” class=”” id=”” background_color=”#ed763a” hue=”” saturation=”” lightness=”” alpha=”” controls_color_scheme=”” progress_color=”” max_width=”” border_size=”” border_color=”” border_radius_top_left=”” border_radius_top_right=”” border_radius_bottom_right=”” border_radius_bottom_left=”” box_shadow=”no” box_shadow_vertical=”” box_shadow_horizontal=”” box_shadow_blur=”0″ box_shadow_spread=”0″ box_shadow_color=”” animation_type=”” animation_direction=”left” animation_speed=”0.3″ animation_offset=”” /][fusion_separator style_type=”default” hide_on_mobile=”small-visibility,medium-visibility,large-visibility” sticky_display=”normal,sticky” class=”” id=”” flex_grow=”0″ top_margin=”40″ bottom_margin=”40″ width=”” alignment=”center” border_size=”0″ sep_color=”#ffffff” hue=”” saturation=”” lightness=”” alpha=”” icon=”” icon_size=”” icon_color=”” icon_circle=”” icon_circle_color=”” /][fusion_title title_type=”text” rotation_effect=”bounceIn” display_time=”1200″ highlight_effect=”circle” loop_animation=”off” highlight_width=”9″ highlight_top_margin=”0″ before_text=”” rotation_text=”” highlight_text=”” after_text=”” title_link=”off” link_url=”” link_target=”_self” hide_on_mobile=”small-visibility,medium-visibility,large-visibility” sticky_display=”normal,sticky” class=”” id=”” content_align_medium=”” content_align_small=”” content_align=”left” size=”3″ animated_font_size=”” fusion_font_family_title_font=”Raleway” fusion_font_variant_title_font=”400″ font_size=”24px” line_height=”” letter_spacing=”-0.01em” text_transform=”none” text_color=”#1d4487″ hue=”” saturation=”” lightness=”” alpha=”” animated_text_color=”” text_shadow=”no” text_shadow_vertical=”” text_shadow_horizontal=”” text_shadow_blur=”0″ text_shadow_color=”” margin_top_medium=”” margin_right_medium=”” margin_bottom_medium=”” margin_left_medium=”” margin_top_small=”” margin_right_small=”” margin_bottom_small=”” margin_left_small=”” margin_top=”” margin_right=”” margin_bottom=”” margin_left=”” margin_top_mobile=”” margin_bottom_mobile=”” gradient_font=”no” gradient_start_color=”” gradient_end_color=”” gradient_start_position=”0″ gradient_end_position=”100″ gradient_type=”linear” radial_direction=”center center” linear_angle=”180″ highlight_color=”” style_type=”default” sep_color=”” link_color=”” link_hover_color=”” animation_type=”” animation_direction=”left” animation_speed=”0.3″ animation_offset=””]

ELECTRIC CURRENT

An atom can give up or acquire electrons, in which case the atom becomes ‘charged’. The transfer of electrons between atoms is what occurs in the case of oxidation-reduction reactions, known as RedOx reactions. In these types of reactions, oxidation occurs when there is a transfer of electrons by an atom (which thus becomes a positive ion) and reduction occurs when an atom acquires an electron (which thus becomes a negative ion). A RedOx reaction occurs when atoms pass electrons to each other, like the ball in a game: there is thus a transfer of charges, called current, from one chemical species to another. When negatively charged elements are brought into contact with positively charged elements, through a conductive element (e.g. a copper wire), an electrical circuit is created and there is a flow of charges called an electric current.

Let us take a step back and take a positive charge A placed at a point in space called O. Let us now take a second positive charge B placed at a point P: this, since charges of equal sign repel each other, will be affected by a force produced by charge A pushing it away. Charge B, therefore, has energy due to its position and is caused by the fact that it must move away from A. The further charge B moves away, the less energy it will have because it will feel less of the influence of charge A. This energy is called potential energy because it depends on its position. If we connect two points of different potential energy with a conductor, i.e. a material capable of flowing electric current through it, positive electric charges will move from the point of higher potential to the point of lower potential. This flow of charges, called an electric current, is proportional to potential differences, and the unit of measurement of potential difference in the International System is the Volt (V) in honour of the Italian scientist Alessandro Volta. He is credited with the invention of the electric battery. Volta built the first battery in 1799. The name ‘battery’ is due to the shape of the prototype: a series of disks of conducting materials (copper and zinc) interspersed with felts soaked in plain salt water and stacked on top of each other to form, precisely, a battery. The single constituent unit of the stack (i.e. the copper and zinc disks and the felt placed between them) is called an electrochemical cell.

Before the invention of the battery, scientists had at their disposal mechanical machines which, however, refined, could only produce sudden, temporary, and violent electrical discharges, lightning on command. Volta’s invention, on the other hand, allowed a constant and controlled flow of electric charges: it was the first example of an effectively measurable electric current generated from the difference in electric potential produced at the ends of the battery. However, we must also tell of Volta’s predecessor: on the evening of 6 November 1780, in fact, the Bolognese anatomist Luigi Galvani, experimenting with the presence of some of his students, touches the leg muscles of a dead frog with a conducting arc and discovers that the animal moves with a leap. Galvani is convinced that he has discovered a mysterious ‘electrical fluid’ produced by the brain and transferred to the animal’s muscles. In reality, without knowing it, he has invented the prototype of the battery: the bimetallic arc generates a potential difference that is detected by the contraction of the frog’s muscle.

Today, we know that the presence of free ions within animals and humans allows the conduction of electricity.

RedOx continues to occur and produce current until an equilibrium is reached. At that point, electrons stop flowing and the battery is discharged. In the past, most batteries were not rechargeable and, once discharged, had to be disposed of properly. Today, we have an excellent variety of rechargeable batteries capable of making the RedOx reaction reversible by reversing the passage of electrons. In this case, the correct definition is accumulators, because the electric current we create to recharge the battery is used to reverse the RexOx reaction and restore the initial state. The discharge step, however, is never fully reversible and, after a certain number of discharge and recharge cycles (usually hundreds or thousands), the battery ceases to be rechargeable and must be disposed of anyway.

One example of an accumulator is the lithium battery, an idea that originated in the early 1900s, but the technology was not yet mature enough to reach commercial development. It took almost a hundred years for these devices to enter everyone’s home at a reasonable price.

The chemical reaction produced in a Volta battery is based on the properties of two metals: zinc and copper. Simply take two sheets of these two metals – these sheets are called electrodes – and put them in contact with each other with an electrolyte, (a substance that can split into ions) such as salt water in which the salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) splits into a positive ion Na (Sodium) and a negative ion Cl (Chlorine). This initiates a reaction in which zinc oxidises (gives up electrons) and copper reduces (gains electrons).

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filter_type=”regular” filter_hue=”0″ filter_saturation=”100″ filter_brightness=”100″ filter_contrast=”100″ filter_invert=”0″ filter_sepia=”0″ filter_opacity=”100″ filter_blur=”0″ filter_hue_hover=”0″ filter_saturation_hover=”100″ filter_brightness_hover=”100″ filter_contrast_hover=”100″ filter_invert_hover=”0″ filter_sepia_hover=”0″ filter_opacity_hover=”100″ filter_blur_hover=”0″ animation_type=”” animation_direction=”left” animation_speed=”0.3″ animation_offset=”” last=”true” border_position=”all” first=”true”][fusion_title title_type=”text” rotation_effect=”bounceIn” display_time=”1200″ highlight_effect=”circle” loop_animation=”off” highlight_width=”9″ highlight_top_margin=”0″ before_text=”” rotation_text=”” highlight_text=”” after_text=”” title_link=”off” link_url=”” link_target=”_self” hide_on_mobile=”small-visibility,medium-visibility,large-visibility” sticky_display=”normal,sticky” class=”” id=”” content_align_medium=”” content_align_small=”” content_align=”left” size=”3″ animated_font_size=”” fusion_font_family_title_font=”Raleway” fusion_font_variant_title_font=”400″ font_size=”24px” line_height=”” letter_spacing=”-0.01em” text_transform=”none” text_color=”#1d4487″ hue=”” saturation=”” lightness=”” alpha=”” animated_text_color=”” text_shadow=”no” text_shadow_vertical=”” text_shadow_horizontal=”” text_shadow_blur=”0″ text_shadow_color=”” margin_top_medium=”” margin_right_medium=”” margin_bottom_medium=”” margin_left_medium=”” margin_top_small=”” margin_right_small=”” margin_bottom_small=”” margin_left_small=”” margin_top=”” margin_right=”” margin_bottom=”” margin_left=”” margin_top_mobile=”” margin_bottom_mobile=”” gradient_font=”no” gradient_start_color=”” gradient_end_color=”” gradient_start_position=”0″ gradient_end_position=”100″ gradient_type=”linear” radial_direction=”center center” linear_angle=”180″ highlight_color=”” style_type=”default” sep_color=”” link_color=”” link_hover_color=”” animation_type=”” animation_direction=”left” 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TRACCIA AUDIO MODELLO ATOMICO

[/fusion_title][fusion_audio src=”https://www.mu-ch.it/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/QRCODE-3-MODELLO-ATOMICO.mp3″ loop=”off” autoplay=”off” preload=”none” hide_on_mobile=”small-visibility,medium-visibility,large-visibility” class=”” id=”” background_color=”#ed763a” hue=”” saturation=”” lightness=”” alpha=”” controls_color_scheme=”” progress_color=”” max_width=”” border_size=”” border_color=”” border_radius_top_left=”” border_radius_top_right=”” border_radius_bottom_right=”” border_radius_bottom_left=”” box_shadow=”no” box_shadow_vertical=”” box_shadow_horizontal=”” box_shadow_blur=”0″ box_shadow_spread=”0″ box_shadow_color=”” animation_type=”” animation_direction=”left” animation_speed=”0.3″ animation_offset=”” /][fusion_separator style_type=”default” hide_on_mobile=”small-visibility,medium-visibility,large-visibility” sticky_display=”normal,sticky” class=”” id=”” flex_grow=”0″ top_margin=”40″ bottom_margin=”40″ width=”” alignment=”center” border_size=”0″ sep_color=”#ffffff” hue=”” saturation=”” lightness=”” alpha=”” icon=”” icon_size=”” icon_color=”” icon_circle=”” icon_circle_color=”” /][fusion_title title_type=”text” rotation_effect=”bounceIn” display_time=”1200″ highlight_effect=”circle” loop_animation=”off” highlight_width=”9″ highlight_top_margin=”0″ before_text=”” rotation_text=”” highlight_text=”” after_text=”” title_link=”off” link_url=”” link_target=”_self” hide_on_mobile=”small-visibility,medium-visibility,large-visibility” sticky_display=”normal,sticky” class=”” id=”” content_align_medium=”” content_align_small=”” content_align=”left” size=”3″ animated_font_size=”” fusion_font_family_title_font=”Raleway” fusion_font_variant_title_font=”400″ font_size=”24px” line_height=”” letter_spacing=”-0.01em” text_transform=”none” text_color=”#1d4487″ hue=”” saturation=”” lightness=”” alpha=”” animated_text_color=”” text_shadow=”no” text_shadow_vertical=”” text_shadow_horizontal=”” text_shadow_blur=”0″ text_shadow_color=”” margin_top_medium=”” margin_right_medium=”” margin_bottom_medium=”” margin_left_medium=”” margin_top_small=”” margin_right_small=”” margin_bottom_small=”” margin_left_small=”” margin_top=”” margin_right=”” margin_bottom=”” margin_left=”” margin_top_mobile=”” margin_bottom_mobile=”” gradient_font=”no” gradient_start_color=”” gradient_end_color=”” gradient_start_position=”0″ gradient_end_position=”100″ gradient_type=”linear” radial_direction=”center center” linear_angle=”180″ highlight_color=”” style_type=”default” sep_color=”” link_color=”” link_hover_color=”” animation_type=”” animation_direction=”left” animation_speed=”0.3″ animation_offset=””]

ATOMIC MODEL

It makes an impression to think that for two thousand years mankind thought that the world was made of small, indivisible particles called atoms. It makes an impression to think that this concept was a figment of the imagination of a philosopher, Democritus in the 5th century BC, without scientific experimental support, and it makes an impression that this theory was the basis of modern science until the early 20th century.

This atomic model began to falter with the discovery of radioactivity and the discovery of a negative particle called the electron.

These discoveries made it clear that if the atom can lose particles during radioactive decay, and

there are electrons inside it, then it is not indivisible, it is not the smallest part of the matter.

The discovery of the electron led to the hypothesis of new atomic models, such as that of the British physicist Joseph John Thomson who, after discovering the electron, hypothesised that the atom was composed of a positive cloud in which negative corpuscles were present. Thomson’s model went down in history as the ‘sultana loaf model’.

This model lasted for 14 years, nothing like Democritus’ two thousand, until the coronation of Rutherford’s model, who realised that the atom was essentially empty except for a central, denser area called the nucleus. This nucleus was composed of protons and neutrons, and electrons revolve around it. This model was called the ‘planetary model’ because of its similarity to our Solar System.

This atomic model seemed to be reliable, given the experimental evidence at the time, but it was not. The model fell apart with the arrival of Bohr, who explored the subject of electron orbits around the nucleus, realising that electrons could not simply orbit the nucleus, but had to do so in stable orbits.

To understand this, imagine we are in space, in a space station orbiting a planet. Our orbit is nothing special; if we turn on the rocket propulsion, our space station can move 7 meters away from the planet and turn onto a new orbit, descend a few meters and follow another orbit.

In short, all orbits are permitted, but this is not the case for electrons.

The orbits they can travel are fixed at defined distances from the nucleus. The orbits according to Bohr’s model are like steps on a ladder, the electron cannot stand halfway between two steps, otherwise, it would risk falling back onto the previous one.

From Bohr’s model of 1913, we move on to Schrodinger’s model of 1926, which is the model

currently in use to describe the modern atom.

According to Schrodinger’s model, electrons move around the nucleus on fixed orbitals; we do not know the exact location of the electrons, but we only know that they have a certain probability of being found in certain regions of space surrounding the atom, which are called orbitals. Orbitals are a region of space where the probability of finding an electron is highest, at least 90%.

Thanks to this model, we now know how to represent the electrons in orbitals around the nucleus and are thus able to predict their behaviour when interacting with other atoms. The electrons are arranged in the orbitals according to very precise rules, starting with the first rule that places them so that the atom’s total energy is minimal, attractions are maximised and repulsions are minimised, by Pauli’s exclusion principle, which states that each orbital can contain a maximum of two electrons; and Hund’s rule, which tells us that when orbitals with the same energy are to be filled, an electron is placed on each orbital and then the half-filled orbitals are filled. More orbitals can exist at the same energy.

Representing the electrons around the nucleus means assigning the fundamental-state configuration to a chemical element of atomic number Z, which corresponds to the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom (in a neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons); to represent the electronic configuration of the fundamental state, we apply the following criteria:

We add Z electrons, one after the other, associating no more than two electrons with each orbital (Pauli exclusion principle).

If there is more than one orbital in a given sub-level, we add electrons to distinct orbitals in the sub-level under consideration before completely occupying one orbital (Hund’s rule). We know that for each energy level, there can be more than one orbital.

We identify the orbitals by letters of the alphabet according to increasing energy, with a superscript indicating the number of electrons associated with the orbital under consideration. The configuration of a complete level is represented by the symbol of the noble gas with that configuration, as in [He] for 1s2.

The procedure described provides the electronic configuration of the fundamental state; any other arrangement will correspond to an excited state. Note that the structure of the periodic table makes it possible to predict the electronic configuration of most elements once it is clear which orbitals are filled in each block of the table.

When is an electron in an excited orbital state? When it is in an orbital that is not in the fundamental state, i.e. not in a minimum energy position. And this may be because it has captured an energy packet (photon) that has excited it, but it can return to its initial state by emitting a new photon (e.g. phosphorescent minerals).

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animation_speed=”0.3″ animation_offset=””]

TRACCIA AUDIO I PASSAGGI DI STATO

[/fusion_title][fusion_audio src=”https://www.mu-ch.it/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/QRCODE-2-I-PASSAGGI-DI-STATO.mp3″ loop=”off” autoplay=”off” preload=”none” hide_on_mobile=”small-visibility,medium-visibility,large-visibility” class=”” id=”” background_color=”#ed763a” hue=”” saturation=”” lightness=”” alpha=”” controls_color_scheme=”” progress_color=”” max_width=”” border_size=”” border_color=”” border_radius_top_left=”” border_radius_top_right=”” border_radius_bottom_right=”” border_radius_bottom_left=”” box_shadow=”no” box_shadow_vertical=”” box_shadow_horizontal=”” box_shadow_blur=”0″ box_shadow_spread=”0″ box_shadow_color=”” animation_type=”” animation_direction=”left” animation_speed=”0.3″ animation_offset=”” /][fusion_separator style_type=”default” hide_on_mobile=”small-visibility,medium-visibility,large-visibility” sticky_display=”normal,sticky” class=”” id=”” flex_grow=”0″ top_margin=”40″ bottom_margin=”40″ width=”” alignment=”center” border_size=”0″ sep_color=”#ffffff” hue=”” saturation=”” lightness=”” alpha=”” icon=”” icon_size=”” icon_color=”” icon_circle=”” icon_circle_color=”” /][fusion_title title_type=”text” rotation_effect=”bounceIn” display_time=”1200″ highlight_effect=”circle” loop_animation=”off” highlight_width=”9″ highlight_top_margin=”0″ before_text=”” rotation_text=”” highlight_text=”” after_text=”” title_link=”off” link_url=”” link_target=”_self” hide_on_mobile=”small-visibility,medium-visibility,large-visibility” sticky_display=”normal,sticky” class=”” id=”” content_align_medium=”” content_align_small=”” content_align=”left” size=”3″ animated_font_size=”” fusion_font_family_title_font=”Raleway” fusion_font_variant_title_font=”400″ font_size=”24px” line_height=”” letter_spacing=”-0.01em” text_transform=”none” text_color=”#1d4487″ hue=”” saturation=”” lightness=”” alpha=”” animated_text_color=”” text_shadow=”no” text_shadow_vertical=”” text_shadow_horizontal=”” text_shadow_blur=”0″ text_shadow_color=”” margin_top_medium=”” margin_right_medium=”” margin_bottom_medium=”” margin_left_medium=”” margin_top_small=”” margin_right_small=”” margin_bottom_small=”” margin_left_small=”” margin_top=”” margin_right=”” margin_bottom=”” margin_left=”” margin_top_mobile=”” margin_bottom_mobile=”” gradient_font=”no” gradient_start_color=”” gradient_end_color=”” gradient_start_position=”0″ gradient_end_position=”100″ gradient_type=”linear” radial_direction=”center center” linear_angle=”180″ highlight_color=”” style_type=”default” sep_color=”” link_color=”” link_hover_color=”” animation_type=”” animation_direction=”left” animation_speed=”0.3″ animation_offset=””]

STATE TRANSITIONS

State transitions are the transformation of matter from one physical state (solid, liquid, or aeriform) to another by changes in temperature and pressure.

The change of state is a physical transformation and not a chemical one, because the composition

of the substance is not altered, only how the particles are bound together.

To understand the transition of state, let us use a very common example: water inside a pot boiling, which consequently creates water vapour.

Or, at least, most people think it is steam!

WHAT IS WATER VAPOUR?

To understand what it is, let us start with the clouds.

The process that leads to the formation of clouds occurs when a portion of moist air cools and then condenses.

And condensation is the transition from the aeriform state to the liquid state.

So the clouds are in a liquid state and are made up of trillions of microscopic water droplets.

The same thing happens in our pot: the water evaporated from the boiling pot, upon meeting the room-temperature air in our kitchen, cools and thus condenses. And the condensation process identifies the transition from the aeriform state to the liquid state, just as we have seen with clouds. Our steaming pot is emitting tiny droplets of liquid water (liquid state) and not water vapour (aeriform state)!

So, in conclusion, our cloud, the smoke from the pot, is liquid water.

What comes out of some smokestacks or aircraft is also to be considered in the same state, and in these cases can easily condense due to aggregation with the solid waste particles of the relevant combustions, the so-called pollutants.

BUT THEN, WHAT DOES WATER VAPOUR LOOK LIKE?

Just remember the 3 ‘i’s rule:

1) Water vapour is INVISIBLE: it is contained in the air, but we do not see it until it condenses into water. We can, however, measure it with hygrometers.

2) water vapour is INCOLOUR because you cannot see it.

3) Water vapour is odourless: the air has no odour but takes on any fumes from other gases.

But then, what is the difference between a cloud and rain if both are formed by water droplets?

The difference lies in the size of the droplets: the droplet of a cloud measures about 30 thousandths of a millimetre (it is very light), whereas a raindrop has an average size of between 1 and 3 millimetres and is so heavy that the air no longer supports it; hence the first light droplets remain suspended in the sky (clouds) and the other heavier droplets fall to the ground (rain).

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TRACCIA AUDIO DAL VETRO AL PLEXIGLASS

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FROM GLASS TO PLEXIGLASS

Between 1880 and 1910, a new artistic movement flourished throughout Europe and the United States, involving architecture and the applied arts, a style of ornamental art that spread throughout each country with particular physiognomies. Art Nouveau, Art Nouveau (floral style) in Italy.

Although the Art Nouveau style is the last classical way of conceiving the outward appearance of buildings, it is also a fundamental moment of transition to modern architecture in that, starting with technological innovations and design methods, the new materials used (iron and concrete) are also treated in a completely new way.

The Art Nouveau style finds one of its greatest expressions in the creation of windows and doors, both in terms of the design of the frames and the decoration of the sash surfaces. The triumph of glazed windows and interior doors with refined decorations and infinite colour variations is typical of this style. These beautiful designs, obtained using the leaded glass technique, create interesting plays of coloured reflections. Stylised floral elements, obtained by using a glass of different colors, are the most recurring aspects in this type of window and door, creating suggestive effects in the diffusion of light.

The stairs of the Ex-Siva building are an example of this style. But chemistry makes it possible to replace coloured glass with other materials that are always transparent and above all more resistant. One example above all is plexiglass, a plastic material of which the interactive installations located here are made.

1910

Bakelite, the first thermosetting resin of synthetic origin first synthesised in 1907 by chemist Leo Baekeland, was patented.

1912

Fritz Klatte defines the production process of PVC (polyvinyl chloride).

1913

Jacques Edwin Brandenberger invented Cellophane, the first flexible, transparent, and waterproof material.

1928

PMMA is being developed in Germany, Great Britain, and Spain.

1933

Otto Rohm produced the first plexiglass in Germany.

1935

Nylon (polyamide) was born, a revolutionary material that would see its applications in textiles, from women’s stockings to parachutes.

1936

The first acrylic sheet was created by ICI Acrylics, today one of the world’s largest producers of PMMA sheets; it was called Perspex (from the lative ‘I see through’), and was initially used for fighter aircraft canopies also used in World War II.

1939

The first plastic contact lens was made by Heinrich Wohlk.

1941

PET, polyethene terephthalate, is patented. This synthetic fibre is widely used in the production of fabrics such as fleece.

1954

Giulio Natta discovered isotactic polypropylene, the crowning achievement of his studies on ethylene polymerisation catalysts that earned him the 1963 Nobel Prize in Chemistry together with the German Karl Ziegler. Polypropylene would be produced industrially from 1957 under the brand name ‘Moplen’, revolutionising homes all over the world but above all entering the Italian mythology of the ‘economic boom’.

Polymethyl methacrylate (abbreviated PMMA), known as plexiglass, is a plastic material formed from polymers of methyl methacrylate and is a thermoplastic polymer. As a rule, it is very transparent, more so than glass, and is unbreakable depending on its ‘mixture’.

Due to these characteristics, it is used in the manufacture of safety glass and similar items.

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